[151] At that time, the first plans for space shuttles and orbital stations were drawn up in Soviet design offices, but in the end personal disputes between designers and management prevented this. Questia. [52] According to Bazhanov appointment of people's commissars were made by the party Politburo and ratified later by the Council of People's Commissars. [25] These two documents were confirmed by the first Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations,[26] Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov,[27] on 30 December 1922. [184] By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as Energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. [12] Some organizations in Russian history were called council (Russian: ). [23] The end-goal was to reduce the size of the All-Union government and increase economic growth. Main body of the executive branch of government in the Soviet Union, Revolutionary beginnings and Molotov's chairmanship (19221941), Presidentialism and the Cabinet of Ministers (19901991). [9] In the meantime the commissariats for foreign affairs, commerce and industry, transport, military and navy affairs, finance, foreign trade, labour, post and telegraphs, supply and the interior were granted All-Union status. "Collection of decrees and orders of the Government of the Soviet Union" (19381946). It also included most of the world's largest lakes; the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal in Russia, the world's largest and deepest freshwater lake. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon, a counterpart to the European Economic Community (EEC), from 1949 to 1991. Assigned on 19 September 1990, existing onwards. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev. The Soviet Air Force focused on a fleet of strategic bombers and during war situation was to eradicate enemy infrastructure and nuclear capacity. The government encouraged a variety of trends. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the government budget. ", "The Executive of the Presidents Soviet Protocol Committee (Burns) to the President's Special Assistant (Hopkins)", "The Treatment of Soviet POWs: Starvation, Disease, and Shootings, June 1941 January 1942", "Main Intelligence Administration (GRU) Glavnoye Razvedovatel'noye Upravlenie Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies", Origins of Moral-Ethical Crisis and Ways to Overcome it, "An epidemic of street kids overwhelms Russian cities", "Implications of the Diphtheria Epidemic in the Former Soviet Union for Immunization Programs", "Non-communicable Diseases and Former Soviet Union countries", "Diphtheria in the Former Soviet Union: Reemergence of a Pandemic Disease", "Latvia provides no magic solution for indebted economies", "Russian Demographics: The Role of the Collapse of the Soviet Union", "Russian Economy in the Aftermath of the Collapse of the Soviet Union", " ", " -, - ", " ", Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, "The Evolution of Stalin's Foreign Policy during World War Two", "Inquisitorial procedure (law) Britannica Online Encyclopedia", "Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first man in space", "Economic Development, Political-Economic System, and the Physical Quality of Life", "A Beginner's Guide to Soviet Industrialization", "Human Development Report 1990 | Human Development Reports", Soviet Russia Had a Better Record of Training Women in STEM Than America Does Today, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, "From Tsar to U.S.S.R.: Russia's Chaotic Year of Revolution", "Why the Former USSR Has Far Fewer Men than Women", "In Russia, left isn't quite right Handedness: The official Moscow line is that lefties are OK, but suspicion of those who are different persists from the old Soviet days", Wrong Hand/Wrong Children: Education of Left Handed Children in the Soviet Union, Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union 19211934, "The Fifth problem: math & anti-Semitism in the Soviet Union", "More migrants please, especially the clever ones", " Weekly . [211] This contributed to the larger role women played in Russian society compared to other great powers at the time. In October 1927, Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964. "all institutions had gradually dissolved in the acid of despotism", and that from 1946 until Stalin's death in 1953 "only the most minimal of gestures were made to reverse the atrophy of formal organs of authority, in both party and state. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. [16] It stated that the party politburo had the right to decide on all political matters, which included such topics as governmental appointments and defense, foreign policy and internal security. [143] Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR. After Stalin's death, they focused more on environmental issues, but the basic perception of the value of environmental protection remained the same. In other European languages, the locally translated short forms and abbreviations are usually used such as Union sovitique and URSS in French, or Sowjetunion and UdSSR in German. By 1922 the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin had emerged victorious, forming the Soviet Union. Under the Military Law of September 1925, the Soviet Armed Forces consisted of the Land Forces, the Air Force, the Navy, Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU), and the Internal Troops. [122] Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned. [3] However, scholar Derek Watson states that "the term 'commissar' was regarded as interchangeable with 'minister', and there seems little doubt that the Bolshevik leaders meant 'minister'. As General Secretary of the Communist Party. Although corruption was hardly unknown in the Soviet Union, it became so widespread and blatant in Georgia that it came to be an embarrassment to the authorities in Moscow. [258] A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20% of the Soviet population as active religious believers.[259], The legacy of the USSR remains a controversial topic. [8] The constitution stripped the Council of People's Commissars of powers to initiate legislation, and instead confined it to issuing "decrees and regulations on the basis and in execution of the laws currently in force". Uldricks, Teddy J. [23] A similar idea was proposed to the CPSU Presidium in January 1957. In addition, in 1970 the government reestablished the All-Union Ministry of Justice. Declaration on the USSR foundation and the treaty was signed 30 December 1922 By 1922 in the territory of the former Russian Empire six republics had formed: RSFSR, Ukraine SSR, Belorussia SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Armenia SSR and Georgia SSR. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state, and the end of the Cold War. However, its powers and functions were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. [223], The Soviet Union was an ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. [30] The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. On 14 December 1939, the Soviet Union was expelled from the League of Nations for invading Finland. [147], While nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by Russians. 19241929 Tajik [162] Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. 19201925 Kirghiz2 [54] They could coordinate the activities of ministries, state committees and other organs subordinated to the government, take control of these organs and issue day-to-day instructions. Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic, about a hundred Georgian students were killed, First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party, referendum was held on the restoration of Georgia's independence, " 60 1981", " : ". [256], Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. [174], The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s,[175] both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. With Germany crushed, there is no power in Europe to oppose her tremendous military forces. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. ", "In War II Russia occupies a dominant position and is the decisive factor looking toward the defeat of the Axis in Europe. [54] At last, they could give prior consideration to proposals and draft decisions submitted to the government. Later on 20 March 1991 the Supreme Soviet on Mikhail Gorbachev's suggestion amended the constitution to establish a semi-presidential system, essentially a fusion of the American and French styles of government. During Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's works. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate money circulation, private enterprises and free trade. . Georgia declared independence on April 9, 1991, under Zviad Gamsakhurdia,[10] as one of the republics to secede just four months before the failed coup against Gorbachev in August, which was supported by a declining number of hardliners. At the 1st Plenary Session of the II Supreme Soviet in 1946 the government was renamed Council of Ministers. [15] The party Politburo adopted on 8 February 1947 the resolution "On the Organization of the Council of Ministers", which sought to explain the role of the Council of Ministers, its internal operations and its relationship with the party. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians, who were all East Slavic and Orthodox, shared close cultural, ethnic, and religious ties, while other groups did not. Management of the union's economy and socio-cultural construction and development. [37], On 25 December 1991 Gorbachev announced in a televised speech his resignation from the post of President of the Soviet Union. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major cities. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority of the population were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%). The Russian Federation is seen as the legal continuator state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. On 1921 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a coup attempt. 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer were reported after the incident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). Stalin was elected to the government chairmanship on 6 May 1941. 19361944 Checheno-Ingush History. It was the third-highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and the 25th in the world of 130 countries. [282], A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. What to do in this situation is an open question. It was the largest country in the world, covering over 22,402,200 square kilometres (8,649,500sqmi) and spanning eleven time zones. [241], Christianity and Islam had the highest number of adherents among the religious citizens. By 1940, Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom. In Kyrgyzstan, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm. (in the Latin alphabet: SSSR) is the abbreviation of the Russian language cognate of USSR, as written in Cyrillic letters. [35] For instance, the All-Union Ministry of Culture established the Council of Ministers of Culture to better coordinate policies, while the All-Union Ministry of Foreign Affairs established the Council of Foreign Ministers of the USSR and Union Republics. The treaty established the government, which was later legitimised by the adoption of the first Soviet constitution in 1924. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajik SSR, at 7,495 metres (24,590ft). The authors attribute this poor performance to the low productivity of capital. On 10 October, the Soviet Union and Lithuania signed an agreement whereby the Soviet Union transferred Polish sovereignty over the Vilna region to Lithuania, and on 28 October the boundary between the Soviet occupation zone and the new territory of Lithuania was officially demarcated. Books from Oxford Scholarship Online, Oxford Handbooks Online, Oxford Medicine Online, Oxford Clinical Psychology, and Very Short Introductions, as well as the AMA Manual of Style, have all migrated to Oxford Academic.. Read more about books migrating to Oxford Academic.. You can now search across all these OUP [268], The 19411945 period of World WarII is still known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. [20] Lacking a formal leader, most controversial issues were solved at meetings of the Bureau. It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. [217] Citizens directly entering the workforce had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training. However, as part of a general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied[when?] Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (SSRs) were also admitted into the union which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation. The chairman was nominated by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and elected by delegates at the first plenary session of a newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. [33] Similar to the Council of Ministers, the leading decision-making organ of the Cabinet of Ministers was the Presidium. Dated before the decision to boycott the 1984 Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. The Estonian SSR, officially the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic, was an ethnically based administrative subdivision of the former Soviet Union (USSR) covering the occupied and annexed territory of Estonia in 19401941 and 19441991. In the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. At the same time, the Soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing the freedom to secede in Article 72 of the USSR constitution. During the purges, many eminent Georgian intellectuals such as Mikheil Javakhishvili, Evgeni Mikeladze, Vakhtang Kotetishvili, Paolo Iashvili, Titsian Tabidze and Dimitri Shevardnadze were executed or sent to the Gulag. 19531954: Deputy Head, Main Political Directorate of the Soviet Army and Navy 1953: Head, Political Department of the Ministry of the Navy; 19451946: Head, Political Directorate of the Carpathian Military District; MayJul 1945: Head, Political Directorate of the Fourth Ukrainian Front; 19441945: Deputy Head, Political Directorate of the Fourth Ukrainian Front All-Union ministries managed the branch of state administration entrusted to them throughout the entire Soviet Union directly or through the organs appointed by them, while the union-republican ministries operated, as a rule, through the same-named ministry of the specific union republic in question. [225], All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. It stated that the government, named the Council of People's Commissars, was to be the executive arm of the CEC. . In agriculture, rather than adhering to the lead by example policy advocated by Lenin,[33] forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country. [37], In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new constitution that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, the Gagauz separatist movement of the Gagauz Republic and the Talysh separatist movement of the Talysh-Mughan Autonomous Republic lack any international recognition. On 17 July 1923 the All-Union Council of People's Commissars notified the central executive committees of the union republics and their respective republican governments that it had begun to fulfill the tasks entrusted to it. [20] The Bureau changed its name to the Presidium of the Council of Ministers, and Beria, Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin, Lazar Kaganovich and Maksim Saburov were handed the chairmanship. [160] After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. 19321992 Karakalpak Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union, Disinformation in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests, COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines, Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos, Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act, Faceted Application of Subject Terminology, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union&oldid=1126025585, States and territories established in 1922, States and territories disestablished in 1991, Former member states of the United Nations, Russian-speaking countries and territories, Articles containing Russian-language text, Articles containing Ukrainian-language text, Articles containing Belarusian-language text, Articles containing Georgian-language text, Articles containing Azerbaijani-language text, Articles containing Lithuanian-language text, Articles containing Romanian-language text, Articles containing Latvian-language text, Articles containing Armenian-language text, Articles containing Turkmen-language text, Articles containing Estonian-language text, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference, Articles with Russian-language sources (ru), Articles with dead external links from June 2016, CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown, Articles with dead external links from March 2018, Articles with permanently dead external links, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters, Articles containing Proto-Slavic-language text, Articles needing additional references from March 2022, All articles needing additional references, Wikipedia articles with style issues from March 2022, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2011, All articles with vague or ambiguous time, Vague or ambiguous time from February 2016, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2017, Articles with minor POV problems from February 2013, Articles needing additional references from October 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022, Vague or ambiguous time from January 2018, All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2018, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2020, Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch, Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata, Articles with MusicBrainz area identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. Some small-scale battles between Bolshevik troops and Georgian Army also took place in Western Georgia. [19] Molotov was first appointed, but could rarely fulfill his duties since he was simultaneously Minister of Foreign Affairs and often away on business. [242] Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the largest Christian denomination. [13] On 15 March 1946 the 1st Plenary Session of the 2nd Supreme Soviet transformed the Council of People's Commissars into the Council of Ministers. the army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century. The Organs of Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Chapter VI. WTOP delivers the latest news, traffic and weather information to the Washington, D.C. region. During this period Joseph Stalin (an ethnic Georgian) ordered the deportation of the Chechen, Ingush, Karachay and the Balkarian peoples from the Northern Caucasus; they were transported to Siberia and Central Asia for alleged collaboration with the Nazis. Mironov, Boris N. "The Development of Literacy in Russia and the USSR from the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries". In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the Barents Sea and Kara Sea, which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. [180], Excess deaths throughout World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18million,[198] some 10million in the 1930s,[41] and more than 26million in 19411945. 19191990 Bashkir That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolour was raised in its place. [8] Only the Supreme Soviet and its Presidium, having replaced the Congress of Soviets and the Central Executive Committee respectively, could alter laws. Four All-Union construction ministries were established in 1967 and a fifth in 1972. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. [49] This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II. [91] Soviet treaties laid groundwork for Ukraine's future foreign agreements as well as they led to Ukraine agreeing to undertake 16.37% of debts of the Soviet Union for which it was going to receive its share of USSR's foreign property. Underground dissident literature, known as samizdat, developed during this late period. [265] In a 2018 Rating Sociological Group poll, 47% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive opinion of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, who ruled the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The consolidation into a one-party state took place during the first three and a half years after the revolution, which included the period of, American historian J. Arch Getty concludes: "Many who lauded Stalin's Soviet Union as the most democratic country on earth lived to regret their words. [156], Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely,[164][165] by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. ", Nikos Marantzidis, "The Greek Civil War (19441949) and the International Communist System. [163] A massive unplanned second economy grew up at low levels alongside the planned one, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. After the severe economic collapse, Lenin replaced war communism by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalizing free trade and private ownership of small businesses. In March 1921 the government of the Georgian Democratic Republic was forced in exile. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership,[120] but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the mostly ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. [7] The legislative dominance of the Council of People's Commissars continued despite the 1924 constitution's insistence on its relationship to the CEC. As General Secretary of the Communist Party and. Of these seven were All-Union ministries and the remainder seventeen were republican ministries. Free shipping for many products! As Lenin later noted, Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice. [53] It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. [166] However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries, despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of capital increase was only surpassed by Japan). But we must remember that in 2014, with the filing of the then Ukrainian Prime Minister Yatsenyuk, litigation with Russia resumed in 32 countries. [269], In some post Soviet republics, there is a more negative view of the USSR, although there is no unanimity on the matter. Whereas the original Treaty had only 26 articles, the 1924 Constitution now had 72 divided into eleven chapters. In addition, the Kosygin Government sought to reform the economy by strengthening enterprise autonomy while at the same time retaining strong centralised authority. Portugalov later became one of the leading figures involved in the implementation of Russian doping before the 2016 Summer Olympics. [8] Mikhail Kalinin of the CEC and Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee noted in 1928 that one needed to differentiate between the Presidium of the CEC, which he considered the "organ of legislation", and the administrative role of the Council of People's Commissars. Bergman, Jay. [9] This system created troubles at first since neither the constitution or any legal document defined the relations between All-Union commissariats, their organs in republics and the separate unified republican commissariats. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. [25][26], The Brezhnev Era also saw the adoption of the 1977 constitution. Despite the increasing build-up of Germany's war machine and the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Soviet Union did not cooperate with any other nation, choosing to follow its own path. In architecture, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. Andreas Rdder, Deutschland einig Vaterland Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung (2009). [160] At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second-largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia. About 90% of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias being concentrated in the Azerbaijan SSR. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in the USSR. [28] He had argued that a presidency could lead to the reestablishment of the cult of personality and one-man leadership. . [6] Eventually, the powers of the Council of People's Commissars outstripped those of the CEC. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. [226] If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. 19211991 Dagestan During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines, and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel. 247281. After the ratification of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, the names of all Soviet republics were changed, transposing the second (socialist) and third (sovietskaya in Russian or radianska in Ukrainian) words. [186][187][188], Transport was a vital component of the country's economy. However, in 1978, Soviet authorities had to face the opposition of thousands of Georgians, who gathered in downtown Tbilisi to hold mass demonstration after Soviet officials accepted removal of the constitutional status of the Georgian language as Georgia's sole official state language. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk, where nickel, for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. The Government of the Soviet Union (Russian: , tr. On October 28, 1990, democratic parliamentary elections were held. [15] This decision transformed the government's working methods. During the Georgian Affair of 1922, Lenin called for the RSFSR and other national Soviet republics to form a greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (Russian: , tr. [111] Adolf Hitler proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the MolotovRibbentrop Pact. [57], Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. While persecution accelerated following Stalin's rise to power, a revival of Orthodoxy was fostered by the government during World War II and the Soviet authorities sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church rather than liquidate it. [88][89], In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological, and economic significance.[90] Before the dissolution, the country had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.[11]. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin[135] and Stalin,[136] as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal,[137] itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. The Constitution contained the identical to [21] Its western part in Europe accounted for a quarter of the country's area and was the cultural and economic center. 19441957 Kabardin On 1 November, the Soviet Union annexed Western Ukraine, followed by Western Belarus on the 2nd. . "Nations and Nation-Building in Eastern Europe", "Dentistry in Russia is finally leaving the Dark Ages behind", "The Crisis Deepens: The Outbreak of World War II", "Integrative Complexity of American and Soviet Foreign Policy Rhetoric: A Time Series Analysis", "Russian Support for Stalin Surges to Record High, Poll Says", "Former Soviet Countries See More Harm From Breakup", "Survey shows Ukrainians most negatively regard Stalin, Lenin and Gorbachev", "What Should Russia be in the View of Russians? The government had the right to create, reorganize and abolish subordinate institutions, which were directly subordinate to the government itself. See todays top stories. Convinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s. [287] However, the long-term effects of the accident are unknown. [33] It was to be chaired by the newly created office of Prime Minister of the Soviet Union. [224] Overall, in 1989 the ethnic demography of the country showed that 69.8% was East Slavic, 17.5% was Turkic, 1.6% were Armenians, 1.6% were Balts, 1.5% were Finnic, 1.5% were Tajik, 1.4% were Georgian, 1.2% were Moldovan and 4.1% were of other various ethnic groups. [118] They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above. In 1991, the average 35-year-old had 12 to 14 cavities, fillings or missing teeth. Beginning in October 1918, Lenin's government liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality (re-criminalized in the 1930s), permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Following the Khrushchev Thaw, censorship was diminished. In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism, led to the SinoSoviet split. [244], In Soviet law, the freedom to hold religious services was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. // 70- 80- . [5] On 25 February 1947, appropriate changes were made to the Constitution of the Soviet Union. [196] The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.[197]. These included the suppression of the uprising in East Germany (1953), Hungarian revolution (1956) and the invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968). In the English-speaking world, the Soviet Union was also informally called Russia and its citizens Russians,[17] although that was technically incorrect since Russia was only one of the republics of the USSR. The Soviet Union was officially a secular state,[247][248] but a government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism was conducted under the doctrine of state atheism. Theodore P. Gerber & Michael Hout, "More Shock than Therapy: Market Transition, Employment, and Income in Russia, 19911995", AJS Volume 104 Number 1 (July 1998): 150. Following the dissolution, Russia was internationally recognized[65] as its legal successor on the international stage. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was the highest while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union. The combined Soviet civilian and military casualty countestimated to be around 27 million peopleaccounted for the majority of losses of Allied forces. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in proxy wars. [154], The Soviet Union adopted a command economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. [160] During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. Much of the criticism it receives is centered around massacres in the Soviet Union, the centralized hierarchy present in the USSR and mass political repression as well as violence towards government critics and political dissidents such as other leftists. [172] Compared to countries with similar per-capita GDP in 1928, the Soviet Union experienced significant growth. [23] The proposal sought to switch the function of the All-Union government from active management of operational management of industry to active branch policy-making. It established direct elections of the government. [y] Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Chinese Communist Party, and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. [280] Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, Treaty on the Creation of the Soviet Union, Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, All-Union Ministry of Preservation of Public Order, State Committee on the State of Emergency, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Committee for the Operational Management of the National Economy, Law on the Council of Ministers of the USSR, Administrator of Affairs of the Soviet Union, Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War Government, Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union Government, Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union Government and politics, List of heads of state of the Soviet Union, Collection of laws and instructions of the Workers-Peasants Government of the Soviet Union, published by the Administration of Government Affairs of the Soviet Union ( - , ), Collection of laws and instructions of the Workers-Peasants Government of the Soviet Union for 1930 ( - 1930 . After World War II, Strategic Missile Forces (1959), Air Defense Forces (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in the official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force Fourth, and Navy Fifth). [202], The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. The socio-economic nature of communist states such as the USSR, especially under Stalin, has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of bureaucratic collectivism, state capitalism, state socialism, or a totally unique mode of production. All of the republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as fully independent post-Soviet states. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. A further 62% of people polled preferred the Soviet system of central planning, while 24% prefer a market-based system. [33] In accordance with law the Presidium had to consist of the prime minister, his first deputies, deputies and an Administrator of Affairs. [132], The constitution, which was promulgated in 1924, 1936 and 1977,[133] did not limit state power. Lavrentiy Beria became head of the Georgian branch of the Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU) and was transferred to Moscow in 1938. In 1936, the TSFSR was dissolved and Georgia became the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic. The Premier of the Soviet Union (Russian: ) was the head of government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). According to the Soviet constitution, ministries were divided into all-union and union-republican. According to declassified Soviet archives, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot. December 1925 . "Impact of the Opening of Soviet Archives on Western Scholarship on Soviet Social History.". It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, and also inherited the Soviet Union's UN membership, with its permanent seat on the Security Council. The Soviet Union, similarly to Russia, had the world's longest border, measuring over 60,000 kilometres (37,000mi), or .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}1+12 circumferences of Earth. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. [29] However, he grew concerned about his inability to control All-Union ministries. The country bordered (from 1945 to 1991): Norway, Finland, the Baltic Sea, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, the Black Sea, Turkey, Iran, the Caspian Sea, Afghanistan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. 19211990 Adjarian All organisations were obliged to obey the decrees and resolutions issued by the government. 19341990 Mordovian From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The ruble or rouble (Russian: ) was the currency of the Soviet Union, introduced in 1922, replacing the Imperial Russian ruble.One ruble was divided into 100 kopecks (, pl. Organs of power like the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee etc., were formally ethnically neutral, but in reality, ethnic Russians were overrepresented, although there were also non-Russian leaders in the Soviet leadership, such as Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Podgorny or Andrei Gromyko. Stalin died on 5 March 1953. (Stupidity or treason? On the order of publication of the laws and orders of the Government of the Soviet Union: Decree of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union and the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union of August 22, 1924. [231] Minister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of rubles were squandered. [u] Stalin's Great Purge resulted in the detainment or execution of many Old Bolsheviks who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. [23] Around this time Khrushchev suggested abolishing the industrial and construction ministries and distributing their duties and responsibilities to republican governments and regional bureaucrats. In the post-war period, the Soviet Army was directly involved in several military operations abroad. Investigation of the death of the USSR), "The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 193045", List of primary and secondary sources on the Cold War, Stalin: An Appraisal of the Man and His Influence, "A New Estimate of Ukrainian Population Losses during the Crises of the 1930s and 1940s". A thriving pseudo-capitalist shadow economy emerged alongside the official state-owned economy. [33] At last, the Law on the Cabinet of Ministers granted the Cabinet of Ministers the right to issue decrees and resolutions, but not of the same power and scope of those formerly issued by the Council of Ministers. By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the Caribbean crisis, under the leadership of Sergei Gorshkov, it expanded significantly. [citation needed], The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant. Censorship was relaxed as well. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. His policy of glasnost freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. // . During the 1950s and 1960s, it had comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. [159], By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a tiny share of domestic products was traded internationally. [27] The constitution defined the Presidium as a permanent governmental organ responsible for establishing and securing good economic leadership and to assume administrative responsibilities. The government was forced to resign in the aftermath of the 1991 Soviet coup d'tat attempt, which Prime Minister Valentin Pavlov participated in. Although it had a tough position at the time, due to Russia's position as a single continuation of the USSR that became widely accepted in the West as well as a constant pressure from the Western countries, allowed Russia to dispose state property of USSR abroad and conceal information about it. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. "'And all our classes turned into a flower garden again'science education in Soviet schools in the 1920s and 1930s: the case of biology from Darwinism to Lysenkoism. [46] Harry Hopkins, a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war.[w]. Search for non-trivial solutions. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in Hungary in 1956. The government of the Russian SFSR led by Vladimir Lenin governed the Soviet Union until 6 July 1923, when the CEC established the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union. [112], Up until his death in 1953, Joseph Stalin controlled all foreign relations of the Soviet Union during the interwar period. This was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform. Famines ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving kulaks were persecuted, and many were sent to Gulags to do forced labor. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.[277]. [161] Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1945. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. [255], Under Nikita Khrushchev, the state leadership clashed with the churches in 19581964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. [208] The epidemic of divorces and extramarital affairs created social hardships when Soviet leaders wanted people to concentrate their efforts on growing the economy. The CPSU's 19th All-Union Conference voted in favor of amending the constitution. [23], The CPSU Presidium adopted Khrushchev's proposal. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years. The coup failed, and the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power in the period of transition. In the decade 1965 to 1975, twenty-eight industrial ministries were established. 19351943 Kalmyk [185], Under the Reagan administration, Project Socrates determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. It was instrumental in the Great Purge,[130] but was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. On March 9, 1956, about a hundred Georgian students were killed when they demonstrated against Nikita Khrushchev's policy of de-Stalinization that was accompanied by an offhanded remark he made about Georgians at the end of his anti-Stalin speech. [201] Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. ? [16] Joseph Stalin initially resisted Lenin's proposal but ultimately accepted it, although with Lenin's agreement changed the name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), although all the republics began as socialist soviet and did not change to the other order until 1936. [244] In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact used a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups. The 1979 Soviet economic reform also sought to de-regulate the economy to give state enterprises more autonomy, while giving state enterprises more room to discuss their production goals with their respective ministries. [33] It was responsible for formulating and executing the All-Union state budget, administrating defense enterprises and overseeing space research, implementing Soviet foreign policy, crime-fighting, and maintaining defense and state security. The Declaration of the Rights of the Worker and Exploited People was introduced at the Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets in January 1918 and provided some of the legal substance of the first Soviet constitutions (for Soviet Russia in 1922 and for the new USSR in 1924). ", "Contextual effects on historical memory: Soviet nostalgia among post-Soviet adolescents", "Celebrations, Commemorative Dates and Related Rituals: Soviet Experience, its Transformation and Contemporary Victory Day Celebrations in Russia and Latvia", "A Proposal Concerning the General Line of the International Communist Movement", "Seven Letters Exchanged Between the Central Committees of the Communist Party of China and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "The Role of Sports in the Soviet Union | Guided History", "The Olympic Ideal and the Winter Games Attitudes Towards the Olympic Winter Games in Olympic Discoursesfrom Coubertin to Samaranch", "The Soviet Doping Plan: Document Reveals Illicit Approach to '84 Olympics", "Chernobyl: the true scale of the accident", "The Chernobyl Accident 20 Years on: An Assessment of the Health Consequences and the International Response", Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War, Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union, Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union, "The Soviet Economic Decline, Historical and Republican Data", ? 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