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Injury ratings were recorded on a scale of 0100, where 0 means no injury and 100 means complete death. Rice cultivar tolerance to different rates of azimsulfuron in dry-direct seeded rice, experiment 2 (20102011). Crop safety to new herbicides is another concern particularly in scented rice. Mahajan etal. 0000003145 00000 n Two sequential foliar sprays of 1% FeSO4 were applied at 40 and 47 DAS, though only the Madhuban location showed iron deficiency at this stage. Thus it is recommended that the herbicide is applied soon after potting or planting. Call: (+234) 916 000 6001 Whatsapp: (+234) 809 409 1115 The results of the current research are in congruity with previous reports of superior weed control in DSR with PRE application of pendimethlin fb bispyribac-sodium POST (Mahajan and Chauhan, 2013) and pendimethalin PRE fb bispyribac-sodium+chlorimuron+metsulfuron POST (Ganie etal., 2013). The .gov means its official. The density of broadleaf weeds was reduced by 6688% with PRE herbicide treatments compared to weedy check. Economically, the sequential application of pendimethalin PRE fb bispyribac-sodium+azimsulfuron POST was superior over non-treated weed-free treatment in terms of B:C ratio (Table7, Table8). Since the area under DSR sharply increased in Haryana, India, in 2010, it necessitated the testing of new herbicide molecules for herbicide efficacy and crop safety especially for scented rice which has huge export potential and Haryana is the major exporter of scented (basmati) rice. Second Floor, Freedom House (Beside IBEDC Office), General Gas, Akobo, Ibadan 200103, Oyo State, Nigeria. Farmers generally apply herbicides by mixing them in sand for easy operation and prefer to use either single application of PRE or POST herbicides which fails to control diverse weed flora observed in DSR (Chauhan, 2012, Chauhan and Opea, 2012). hToHSQK6e|(4(Y"}*Ih7Pi"~j6P*Ff6&YBBK\ 0000005163 00000 n Dry direct-seeded rice (DSR) has shown promise under several ecologies and production systems to overcome these challenges, and is considered as potential alternative to PTR. The weed biomass was reduced by 6786% with the sequential application of pendimethlin PRE fb either azimsulfuron or bispyribac-sodium or both together as tankmix application compared to weed biomass reduction of 6273% with oxadiargyl PRE fb azimsulfuron or bispyribac-sodium at 45 DAS (Table6). Received 2015 Feb 21; Revised 2015 Dec 26; Accepted 2015 Dec 28. Many weeds germinate within days of receiving optimal environmental conditions. Tuong T.P., Bouman B.A.M., Mortimer M. More rice, less water-Integrated approaches for increasing water productivity in irrigated rice-based systems in Asia. Cost of such field operation was calculated by using time required by such operation, diesel consumed per unit time and market price of diesel. Bispyribac-sodium was inferior to azimsulfuron in controlling broadleaved weeds and resulted in lesser yield at this location. The cost of sequential application of herbicides in DSR ranged from approximately US$60 with single PRE and POST to US$90ha1 for PRE and tankmix POST applications compared to US$175 US$190ha1 ($1 = Rs 45.68) in hand weeding in weed-free plots. At Madhuban location, highest grain yield of 3.43tha1 was recorded with the sequential application of pendimethalin PRE fb bispyribac-sodium+azimsulfuron POST and it was comparable with the grain yield 3.5tha1 obtained in weed-free plots (Table7). h1 04d\GMyC. Proceedings of Rice-wheat Research Project Workshop, India. Traditional methods of weed control with manual labour increases the cost of cultivation. In DSR systems, dry rice seeds are sown with or without tillage and irrigation is applied periodically to maintain soil at field capacity. Control of early weeds (annual and perennial broad-leaf weeds and grasses). Weed biomass and weed density was determined at 20 and 45 DAS from a randomly selected 1m2 quadrat in each plot. The benefit-cost ratio of rice crop was higher with herbicide treatments at both sites as compared with the non-treated weed-free check except single PRE and POST applications and sequential application of oxadiargyl PRE fb oxadiargyl PRE. Greater consistency in a wider range of weather conditions. (2009) also found that sequential application of pendimethalin (1000gha1) PRE fb bispyribac-sodium (30gha1) applied 15 DAS provided better control of weeds in DSR. JMP Software V. 11 Procedure Guide. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help The experiment was conducted at two sites (Nagla and Taraori; Haryana, India) over two years (2010 and 2011) and arranged in a split-plot design with three replications at each site. Thus, reducing the profitability and sustainability of puddled transplanted rice (PTR). List of weed species at experimental locations, Haryana, India. Higher rice grain yield and economic returns with POST application of bispyribac-sodium was reported earlier by Khaliq etal. 20th Asian Pacific Weed Sciences Society. The cost of human labour used for tillage, seeding, irrigation, fertilizer and pesticide application, weeding, harvesting and threshing of crops was based on actual cost to farmers and were estimated considering total acreage and person-hours. It is also extensively used in the form of granules in rice as a post-emergence herbicide. 0000002114 00000 n q/@'{{SF,=.\F/~BlgCl[^2=oWb{sTNNG}kd>P2kQgcjdYkAnXtprJF-cLJu}Mg\~SU}=g/GEJ}F7Z~#Z6O8b/"|>zD mU>S 7U]|~,J/J(nq;\Jq9kVun' e,g#qJrpy/ 1x.r*HF*Q9nU%Zm(%s\=ZkJhD"y;DTn6@%6CgtPH8j#B5) R"x8G0ArFHbAphd 2021 Afrimash Company Limited. 0000006764 00000 n Efficacy of herbicide treatments at 20 DAS and 45 DAS, CSISA research platform, Taraori, Karnal, India (2010). Prices were estimated with average Dollar (US) -Rupee (INR) exchange rate in 2010 ($1=45.68). Analysis of variance P values for the crop injury and yield reduction for experiment 2 (20102011). The density of sedges were in range of 01 plants m2 with the sequential applications of PRE fb POST herbicides compared to density of 3, 2, or 7 plants m2 with single PRE or POST-only application. Across the locations, higher yields were recorded from sequential application of herbicide treatments compared with single application of oxadiargyl PRE or bispyribac-sodium POST. Rashid M.H., Alam M.M., Khan M.A.H., Ladha J.K. Weed ecology and weed management strategies for dry-seeded rice in Asia. Other benefits of DSR include faster and easier planting, improved soil health, higher tolerance to water deficit, less methane emission, and often higher profit in areas with an assured water supply (Datta, 1986, Kumar and Ladha, 2011, Pathak etal., 2009). Therefore, two studies were conducted to (1) evaluate herbicide options available for effective weed control in DSR, and (2) evaluate tolerance of potential scented rice cultivars (fine and superfine basmati) to azimsulfuron. The crop was harvested in the second week of November, 2010, at both sites from two spots (11m and 33m) area per treatment for accuracy and averaged. After the first irrigation at the time of seeding, the second light irrigation was applied 5 DAS. Annual Meeting of Agronomy Society of America, November 15, 2009, Pittsburgh. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted One of the factors behind migration of labour to cities is the implementation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act-2005 which guarantees 100 days of work to all unemployed people in rural India (Anonymous, 2014). (Singh etal., 2010, Mahajan and Chauhan, 2013). 0000009383 00000 n National Library of Medicine November 29-December 5, 1987, Taipei, Taiwan. Light irrigation was provided immediately after seeding. will also be available for a limited time. The soil type at both Taraori and Madhuban village was sandy clay loam in texture. Eleven treatments including PRE and POST herbicide combinations (Table1) were evaluated in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications at each location. In this situation, use of herbicides is becoming more popular in DSR because they are more effective, easy to apply, provide selective control, saves on labour and costs less. FOIA Because of high rate of withdrawal of ground water in conventional tillage based puddled transplanted rice, water tables in some areas of North-West Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) has been declining by 0.11.0m per year, resulting in increased cost of water pumping (Humphreys etal., 2010, Rodell etal., 2009, Hira, 2009). Learn more DSR systems are subject to much higher weed pressure than PTR system (Rao etal., 2007), in which weeds are suppressed by standing water and transplanted rice seedlings, that provide head start over germinating weed seedlings (Moody, 1983). Moreover, the use of fenoxaprop or other weed specific herbicides either in tankmix with bispyribac-sodium and azimsulfuron (Chauhan etal., 2015, Mahajan and Chauhan, 2015) as early POST or at later stage for effective weed control, would further increase the herbicide application cost. Make safe and reliable transaction with us, We accept bank transfer, bank deposit, online with bank, or debit/credit card. 0000004556 00000 n of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville 72701, AR, USA, bInternational Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, NASC complex, New Delhi 110012, India, cDept. All rights reserved. %%EOF Khaliq A., Matloob A. Weed crop competition period in three fine rice cultivars under direct seeded rice culture. 0000000016 00000 n Rao A.N., Johnson D.E., Sivaprasad B., Ladha J.K., Mortimer A.M. Weed management in direct-seeded rice. Grass weed density at 20 DAS, following PRE application of butachlor, pendimethalin and oxadiargyl were 15, 1013 and 1623 plants m2, respectively and were lower compared to 51 plants m2 observed in weedy check (Table5). Returns over variable cost will be a driving force for farmers in adopting DSR and achieving better weed control in future. The inclusion of azimsulfuron with bispyribac-sodium for POST application widens the spectrum of weed control because azimsulfuron effectively controls sedges and broadleaved weeds (Singh etal., 2010, Walia etal., 2008). Performance of rice ('CSR 30) in response to herbicide treatments, CSISA research platform, Madhuban, Karnal, India (2010). Khaliq A., Matloob A., Ahmad N., Rasul F., Awan I.U. about navigating our updated article layout. Across the locations, sequential application of herbicides were better compared to single application of either PRE or POST treatments alone in controlling weeds in DSR. Thus, after youve planted your fields, and in the process brought weed seed to the soil surface, many weeds can germinate within several days. Azimsulfuron POST performed better than bispyribac-sodium POST in terms of B:C ratio and ROVC owing to higher infestation of broadleaved weeds at Madhuban. Remaining amount of N (50kgha1) was applied in two splits at 40 and 60 DAS. Mahajan G., Chauhan B.S., Johnson D.E. Similarly, all PRE herbicide treatments resulted in similar control of broadleaved weeds and sedges. In general, with availability of these herbicides, farmers have options to control weeds but simultaneously with increasing number of herbicides, application cost of weed control is also increasing. 0000023471 00000 n 0000014451 00000 n Inclusion of azimsulfuron in tankmix with bispyribac-sodium was more efficient at site with higher broadleaved weeds, however, this tankmix application increased total cost also. Rice-wheat is the major cropping system of the region and popularly known for basmati/scented rice cultivation. For POST application, the tank-mixture of bispyribac-sodium+azimsulfuron would be a potential herbicide combination if both grassy and broadleaved weeds are present in the field. Farmers' participatory field trials were conducted at Madhuban, and Taraori, the two participatory experimental sites/locations of the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA), a collaborative project of IRRI and CIMMYT in Karnal district of Haryana, India, during Kharif (wet season) 2010 and 2011. The density of grass weeds was 1216, 2131, and 20 plants m2 following PRE application of pendimethalin, oxadiargyl and butachlor, respectively, compared to 51 plants m2 in the weedy check at 20 DAS (Table6). Site-Year and its interaction effects were non-significant (Table9), therefore data were pooled for both sites (Table10). The number of grains per panicle was higher by 84137% and 87144% with herbicide treatments compared with weedy check at Madhuban and Taraori, respectively. CSR 30 (superfine, scented) was more sensitive to higher rates (35g ai ha1) of azimsulfuron as compared to Pusa 1121 (fine, scented). Both sites were low in organic matter (0.340.37%) with alkaline reaction (pH range of 8.08.1). Therefore, higher application rate (>25g ai ha1) may reduce the yield significantly especially in superfine, scented rice cultivars. Weed samples were oven dried before weighing at 70C till the constant weight was achieved. Chauhan B.S., Abugho S. Weed management in mechanized-sown, zero-till dry-seeded Rice. Weed density data were subjected to square-root (x+1) transformation before analysis. Because of the variation in weed composition and weed pressure among experimental locations and a significant interaction between site-year and treatments, results are presented separately for each location. Moody K. Weed control in upland rice with emphasis on grassy weeds. Site-Year and treatments were considered as the fixed effect and blocks nested in site-year, were treated as the random effect. Oxadiargyl (sandmix) application was popular among farmers of the region owing to ease of application and cost effectiveness. Fertilizers, 25kgN, 30kgP2O5, and 25kg ZnSO4 ha1, were applied as a basal dose. Biomass (dry weight basis) reductions following PRE herbicide application were identical with all PRE herbicide treatments, with values in the range of 2.44gm2 compared to 10.3gm2 in weedy check. Efficacy of herbicide treatments at 20 DAS and 45 DAS, CSISA research platform, Madhuban, Karnal, India (2010). Improving the Productivity and Sustainability of RiceWheat Systems: Issues and Impacts. Moreover, seedlings of some grassy weeds such as Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) look similar to rice seedlings (Rao and Moody, 1987, Rao and Moody, 1988), making hand weeding more tedious, difficult, and less effective. An official website of the United States government. CSR 30 showed significant yield reduction (3.8%) as herbicide rate increased from 15 to 25g ai ha1, whereas no yield difference was observed between these rates in case of Pusa 1121. Container and/or fields must be weed-free before applying preemergence herbicides. 2004 Research Report. 0000003260 00000 n 24th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference October 22-25, 2013, Bandung, Indonesia. Means were separated using Fisher's protected LSD at P0.05. The current study has confirmed that the potential herbicide for PRE under DSR in western IGP was pendimethalin with its good grass weed control and activity on some broadleaved weeds. Khaliq A., Matloob A. Germination and growth response of rice and weeds to herbicides under aerobic conditions. Similarly, the time required by a tractor-drawn machine/implement to complete a field operation such as tillage, seeding, and harvesting was recorded. Khaliq and Matloob (2012) also reported that the density of jungle rice reduced to a great extent with PRE application of butachlor and pendimethalin. Statistical Analysis Systems Institute, Inc.; Cary, NC 27513: 2013. Anonymous . Highest levels of long-term weed control. Moody K. The status of weed control in Asia. Butaforceis a chloroacetanilide class herbicide known for its pre-emergent activity on weeds/soil. However CSR 30 was found to be more sensitive to higher rates of azimsulfuron as compared to Pusa 1121 (Table10). Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Tabbal D.F., Bouman B.A.M., Bhuiyan S.I., Sibayan E.B., Sattar M.A. Azimsulfuron POST was more effective on broadleaved weeds compared to bispyribac-sodium POST. Irrigation was provided with electric motor pump sets with fixed electricity charges. Humphreys E., Kukal S.S., Christen E.W., Hira G.S., Singh B., Yadav S., Sharma R.K. Halting the groundwater decline in north-west India-Which crop technologies will be winners? Among herbicide treatments, butachlor PRE or oxadiargyl (sandmix) PRE fb bispyribac-sodium and oxadiargyl POST, had lower 1000- grain weight compared to other herbicide treatments. PMC legacy view Evaluation of mulching, intercropping with Sesbania and herbicide use for weed management in dry-seeded rice (. Email: [emailprotected]. Azimsulfuron POST was more effective on broadleaved weeds compared to bispyribac-sodium POST. (2008) reported pendimethalin 0.75kgha1 PRE fb bispyribac-sodium 25gha1 POST resulted in 372% increase in rice grain yield compared to weedy check owing to better weed control. All POST herbicides, except sequential PRE application of oxadiargyl, were applied at three-to four-leaf stage of rice [2022 days after seeding (DAS)]. Site-year had no effect on rice cultivar tolerance to azimsulfuron application (Table9). Mahajan G., Chauhan B.S. Symptoms develop more quickly allowing cultivation intervals to be reduced. Abbreviation: fb, followed by; DAS, d after sowing. ButaForce is a selective systemic pre-emergence herbicide. On farm strategies for reducing water input in irrigated rice: case studies in the Philippines. Rice (Oryza sativa) is a major cereal crop and staple food for more than half of the world's population. At each location, a burndown application of glyphosate (1.0kg ai ha1) was made on the experimental area in mid-May 2010 and was followed by a light tillage with one pass of disc harrow and one pass of spring loaded tyne cultivator followed by planking before seeding. The area of each plot was 24m2 (64m). Government of India; 2014. 0000008862 00000 n Pendimethalin (1000g ai ha1; PRE) was applied on the 3rd day of irrigation (field capacity) as a standard PRE practice in all treatments and azimsulfuron was applied at 25 DAS. trailer B:C ratio, Crop injury, Dry direct-seeded rice, Herbicides, POST, PRE, Weed management. The number of effective tillers m2 were 375, 372, 368, and 363 with the sequential application of pendimethalin PRE fb bispyribac+azimsulfuron POST, pendimethalin PRE fb bispyribac-sodium or azimsulfuron POST, and oxadiargyl PRE fb bispyribac-sodium POST compared to 326, 307, and 112 with single application of oxadiargyl PRE, bispyribac-sodium POST and nontreated control, respectively, at Madhuban (Table7). The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the The results suggest that herbicide treatments were effective in reducing weed density and biomass by more than 75% on an average, and reduced the weed competition for resources and space to the crop. 0000001951 00000 n of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583, USA, dQueensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Toowoomba 4350, Australia. In: Ladha J.K., editor. DSR has water saving of 1118% in irrigations (Tabbal etal., 2002) and reduces total labour requirement (1166%) compared to PTR, depending on season, location, and type of DSR (Kumar etal., 2009, Rashid etal., 2009). The grain yield was comparable in these treatments but the cost of labour in maintaining the weed-free situation was higher. One bottlecap to 60ml of water for reconstitution. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act-2005: Ministry of Rural Development. 0000013082 00000 n Applying oxadiargyl by mixing with sand onto flooded field was less effective than spray applications in non-flooded field. Maximum 1000-grain weight was observed in the weed-free treatment and with herbicide treatments compared to non-treated control. Do not allow spray mist to drift onto desirable vegetation. All the herbicide applications resulted in significantly higher grain yield compared to non-treated control. For more information on our shipping options, click here. Oxadiargyl was mixed with sand (8kgha1) and broadcast in standing water (23cm) after irrigation on the day of seeding (general farmer practice). *General ground coverage (45 DAS) by weeds in non-treated area at respective locations are given in parentheses ( ). Sequential application of herbicides proved superior to sole application of herbicides either PRE or POST at both the sites. 0000008258 00000 n Some of the operations were same at each site and facilitated by the same contractual-operator with same price. The weed biomass recorded at 20 DAS was similar with all the PRE herbicide treatments (butachlor, pendimethalin and oxadiargyl) and was reduced by 4277% compared to weedy check. Performance of rice ('CSR 30) in response to herbicide treatments, CSISA research platform, Taraori, Karnal, India (2010). Performance of different herbicides in dry-seeded rice in Bangladesh. However, pendimethalin applied plots had lesser weed density, particularly grasses, compared with butachlor and oxadiargyl. Compared to non-treated weed free treatment, azimsulfuron applied at 35g ai ha1 reduced yield in both cultivars but yield reduction in CSR 30 was two-folds (11.2%) than that in Pusa 1121 (5.2%). About 90% of the world's rice is produced and consumed in Asia (FAO, 2014). Following the POST treatments, grass weed density was reduced significantly under all the sequential treatments compared to single application of oxadiargyl PRE and weedy check. Before 0000023430 00000 n The traditional methods of weed control in rice include hand-weeding by hoe or hand pulling, but this is becoming less common because of labour scarcity at critical time of weeding and increasing labour costs (Chauhan, 2012, Kumar and Ladha, 2011). It provides benefits to growers in the form of reduced storage and packaging waste. The density of grasses, broadleaf weeds and sedges was lower with PRE herbicide treatments compared to weedy check. The density of broadleaved weeds following PRE application of butachlor, pendimethalin, and oxadiargyl were 8, 67, and 78 plants m2, respectively and were 5868% lower compared to 19 plants m2 in the weedy check at 20 DAS (Table5). 0000015114 00000 n Integrated Crop and Resource Management in the Rice-Wheat System of South Asia. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Data were subjected to analysis of variance using JMP Pro v.11 software (SAS, 2013) where herbicide treatments and sites were fixed and blocks at each site were random effect (Table4). Chauhan B.S., Ahmed S., Awan T.H., Jabran K., Sudheesh M. Integrated weed management approach to improve weed control efficiencies for sustainable rice production in dry-seeded systems. 0000007673 00000 n Light irrigation was provided immediately after seeding. Effect of rice and wheat establishment techniques on wheat grain yield. SAS Institute Inc . ButaForce is a selective systemic pre-emergence agricultural herbicide useful for the control of annual grasses and certain broad-leaved weeds in rice, both seeded and transplanted. Azimsulfuron as POST application performed well compared to bispyribac-sodium in terms of B:C ratio and ROVC owing to higher infestation of broadleaved weeds at Madhuban. Details of variable cost price for farm operations, Karnal, Haryana, India (2010).a. Post emergence chemical weed control in direct seeded fine rice. The crop was managed following the standard recommended practices for the region. and transmitted securely. Crop injury at 25 and 35g ai ha1 azimulfuron was 8 and 28% respectively in case of CSR 30 (superfine, scented) cultivar, which was higher compared to 6 and 15%, respectively in Pusa 1121 (fine, scented) cultivar. The All PRE herbicides except oxadiargyl (sand mix application), were sprayed on the third day of irrigation. Rodell M., Velicigna I., Famiglietti J.S. Authors also thank USAID and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for funding this research through the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA). The yield reduction of 89% and 75% were observed at Madhuban and Taraori respectively, in non-treated control plots compared with weed-free treatments. Direct-Seeding of Rice and Weed Management in the Irrigated Rice Wheat Cropping System of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. aDept. Products shipped in good condition are not liable for returns or refunds. This research aimed to evaluate preemergence (PRE) and postemergence (POST) herbicides for providing feasible and economically viable weed management options to farmers for predominant scented rice varieties. Means were separated using Fisher's protected LSD at P0.05. Hira G.S. The herbicides were applied using a battery operated back-pack knapsack sprayer fitted with a flat-fan nozzle and calibrated to deliver 500Lha1 for PRE spray and 375Lha1 for POST spray. However, the single application of bispyribac-sodium POST resulted in higher grain yield compared to oxadiargyl PRE at both the locations. It has wide potential use for total weed control in agriculture. Singh R.G., Singh S., Singh V., Gupta R.K. Efficacy of azimsulfuron applied alone and tank mixed with metsulfuron+chlorimuron (almix) in dry direct seeded rice. Proc. Proc. Tolerance of two scented rice cultivars ('CSR 30 and 'Pusa 1121) to azimsulfuron was evaluated using three herbicide rates (15, 25, and 35kg ai ha1) applied at 25 DAS. <<89E379AE01E4F64EB8FB1DA0588C4A4D>]/Prev 1365408/XRefStm 1721>> 3080 0 obj <> endobj Net returns for each treatment were calculated over variable cost of production (Table3). Crop injuries were 8 and 28% in case of CSR 30; 5 and 15% in Pusa 1121 when applied with azimsulfuron 25 and 35g ai ha1, respectively. startxref v73 !W )"/}u!P b}mJPP3XhN]IHr Therefore, weeds present the main biological constraint to the success of DSR (Chauhan, 2012), and failure to control weeds result in yield losses ranging from 50 to 90% (Chauhan and Johnson, 2011, Chauhan and Opea, 2012). Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in India. At harvesting, five rice plant clusters were randomly selected from each treatment to collect data for plant height (cm), panicle length (cm), and number of grains per panicle. Datta De. Sharma P.K., Ladha J.K., Bhushan L. Soil physical effects of puddling in the rice-wheat cropping system. Therefore, generalized tankmix application of herbicides should be avoided and farmers should be encouraged to apply herbicides based on weed flora. The sequential oxadiargyl was applied at the two-to three-leaf stage of rice (15 DAS). Less packaging, handling, and waste than other herbicide formulations. The use of one hand weeding in DSR at 35-60 DAS along with sequential herbicides has also been suggested by many studies (Ahmed and Chauhan, 2014, Chauhan and Abugho, 2013, Ganie etal., 2014). Technology development and the spread of direct seeded flooded rice in South-East Asia.