Such a paradigm would reconsider the scope, scale, and sectoral context of tourism-related resource utilization issues. One example that underscores the failure to meet all three criteria is the dependence of tourism on fossil fuels for transportation and energy, which are key inputs for tourism development. Little data exist regarding the volume of domestic mass tourism, but nevertheless mass tourism activities dominate the global tourism sector. A wide body of published research is related to the role of tourism in sustainable development, and much of the literature involves case studies of particular types of tourism. Tourists consume water for drinking, when showering and using the toilet, when participating in activities such as winter ski tourism (i.e., snowmaking), and when using swimming pools and spas. Tourism is both dependent on water resources and a factor in global and local freshwater use. Pro-poor approaches to tourism development include increasing access of impoverished people to economic benefits; addressing negative social and environmental impacts associated with tourism; and focusing on policies, processes, and partnerships that seek to remove barriers to participation by people living in poverty. The authors also noted a lack of development in the linkages that could optimize the fulfilment of the pro-poor agenda, such as training or facilitation of local peoples participation in pro-poor tourism development at the grassroots level. . Shortly after the emergence of the concept of sustainable development in academic and policy discourse, tourism researchers began referring to the notion of sustainable tourism (May, 1991; Nash & Butler, 1990), which soon became the dominant paradigm of tourism development. Chatziantoniou et al. Numerous studies have examined the impact of tourism expenditure on GDP, income, employment, and public sector revenue. As noted by Buckley (2012), tourism researchers turned their attention to social and environmental issues around the same time (Cohen, 1978; Farrell & McLellan, 1987; Turner & Ash, 1975; Young, 1973). In 1950, the top five travel destinations were all countries in Europe and the Americas, and these destinations held 71% of the global travel market (Fennell, 2020). As a global economic sector, tourism represents one of the largest generators of wealth, and it is an important agent of economic growth and development (Garau-Vadell et al., 2018). The study identified several critical success factors for CBT enterprises, namely, awareness and sensitization, community empowerment, effective leadership, and community capacity building, which can inform appropriate tourism policy formulation in Kenya. The ecotourism movement gained momentum in the 1990s, primarily in developing countries in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa, and nearly all countries are now engaged in some form of ecotourism. Tourism is dependent on travel, and nearly all forms of transportation require the use of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels for energy. The impacts of tourism involve benefits and costs to all groups, and some of these impacts cannot easily be measured. Still, some tourism researchers have taken issue with the conclusion that mass tourism is inherently unsustainable (Sharpley, 2000; Weaver, 2007), and some have argued for developing pathways to sustainable mass tourism as the desired and impending outcome for most destinations (Weaver, 2012, p. 1030). Tourism enables communities that are poor in material wealth, but rich in history and cultural heritage, to leverage their unique assets for economic development (Honey & Gilpin, 2009). Ecotourism has also been studied extensively in Kenya (Southgate, 2006), Malaysia (Lian Chan & Baum, 2007), Nepal (Baral et al., 2008), Peru (Stronza, 2007), and Taiwan (Lai & Nepal, 2006), among many other countries. The growth of tourism has been marked by an increase in the competition for tourist expenditures, making it difficult for destinations to maintain their share of the international tourism market (Butler, 1991). The early focus on environmental issues in sustainable tourism has been broadened to include economic, social, and cultural issues as well as questions of power and equity in society (Bramwell & Lane, 1993; Sharpley, 2014), and some of these frameworks have integrated notions of social equity, prosperity, and cultural heritage values. Hunter (1995, p. 156) proposes an alternative, extra-parochial paradigm where sustainable tourism development is reconceptualized in terms of its contribution to overall sustainable development. Like most other economic sectors, tourism is vulnerable to the impacts of earthquakes, particularly in areas where tourism infrastructure may not be resilient to such shocks. Tourism is also labor intensive; it provides small-scale employment opportunities, which also helps to promote gender equity. A more complete analysis of the emissions from energy consumption necessary to sustain the tourism sector would include food and beverages, infrastructure construction and maintenance, retail, and financial services. Tourism is also vulnerable to both localized and global shocks. The history of ecotourism is closely connected with the emergence of sustainable development, as it was born out of a concern for the conservation of biodiversity. Global tourism has also been shown to be vulnerable to economic crises, oil price shocks, and global outbreaks of infectious diseases. They suggest that slow tourism is the antithesis of mass tourism, which relies on increasing the quantity of tourists who move through the system with little regard to either the quality of the tourists experience or the benefits that accrue to the localities the tourist visits (Conway & Timms, 2010, p. 332). More importantly, tourism offers an alternative to large-scale development projects such as construction of dams, and to extractive industries such as mining and forestry, all of which contribute to emissions of pollutants and threaten biodiversity and the cultural values of indigenous peoples. In addition to achieving balance between economic growth and the conservation of natural resources, there should be a balance of fairness and opportunity between the nations of the world. Many such studies contrast types of alternative tourism with those of mass tourism, which has received sustained criticism for decades and is widely considered to be unsustainable (Cater, 1993; Conway & Timms, 2010; Fennell, 2020; Gursoy et al., 2010; Liu, 2003; Peeters, 2012; Zapata et al., 2011). The dominant paradigm of sustainable tourism development has been described as introverted, tourism-centric, and in competition with other sectors for scarce resources (McKercher, 1993a). Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to localized shocks include the impacts of natural disasters, disease outbreaks, and civil unrest. It is also the foundation of the leading global framework for international cooperationthe 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015). Costa Rica is well known for having successfully integrated ecotourism in its overall strategy for sustainable development, and numerous case studies of ecotourism in Costa Rica appear in the literature (Chase et al., 1998; Fennell & Eagles, 1990; Gray & Campbell, 2007; Hearne & Salinas, 2002). The global travel and tourism sector supports approximately 330 million jobs, or 1 in 10 jobs around the world. The mixed nature of these results suggest that the relationship between tourism and economic growth depends largely on the social and economic context as well as the role of tourism in the economy. Pro-poor tourism is a model of tourism development that brings net benefits to people living in poverty (Ashley et al., 2001; Harrison, 2008). However, research on the economic impacts of tourism has shown that this potential has rarely been fully realized (Liu, 2003). Food production has significant implications for sustainable development, given the growing global demand for food. Apergis and Payne (2012) examined the causal relationship between tourism and economic growth for a panel of nine Caribbean countries. The results revealed some advantages of economies of scale for maximizing the economic contribution of tourism. The role of tourism in sustainable development can be examined through an understanding of the economic, environmental, and social impacts of tourism. In a study of the viability of the CBT model to support socioeconomic development and poverty alleviation in Nicaragua, tourism was perceived by participants in the study to have an impact on employment creation in their communities (Zapata et al., 2011). However, global evidence from research on the economic impacts of tourism has shown that this potential has rarely been realized (Liu, 2003). Tourism is one of the worlds largest industries, and it has linkages with many of the prime sectors of the global economy (Fennell, 2020). One megatonne (Mt) is equal to 1 million (106) metric tons. One of the main perceived gains regarding the environment was the process of raising awareness regarding the conservation of natural resources. This equates to approximately 1,800 grams (g) of food consumed per tourist per day. In most cases, residents recognize the economic dependence on tourism for income, and there is substantial evidence to suggest that working in or owning a business in tourism or a related industry is associated with more positive perceptions of tourism (Andereck et al., 2007). As Chok et al. The research has generally concluded that tourism development has contributed to sustainable development in some cases where it is demonstrated to have provided support for biodiversity conservation initiatives and livelihood development strategies. Countries that are dependent on tourism for economic growth may be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Richardson & Witkoswki, 2010). When tourism growth exceeds the carrying capacity of the area, resource degradation can lead to the decline of tourism unless specific steps are taken to promote rejuvenation (Butler, 1980, 1991). Studies of residents perceptions of tourism are typically conducted using household surveys. Likewise, stable political institutions and adequate government policies to ensure the appropriate investment in physical and human capital will enhance economic growth. Although these models have been given significant attention among researchers, the extent of their implementation in tourism planning initiatives has been limited, superficial, or incomplete in many contexts. Four basic principles are fundamental to the concept of sustainability: (a) the idea of holistic planning and strategy making; (b) the importance of preserving essential ecological processes; (c) the need to protect both human heritage and biodiversity; and (d) the need to develop in such a way that productivity can be sustained over the long term for future generations (Bramwell & Lane, 1993). Tourism is not robust in that it cannot resist threats and perturbations, such as economic shocks, public health pandemics, war, and other disruptions. Given that tourism is dependent on energy, the movement of people, and the consumption of resources, virtually all tourism activities have significant economic, environmental, and sustainable impacts. Many social impacts of tourism can be linked to the overuse of the resource base, increases in traffic congestion, rising land prices, urban sprawl, and changes in the social structure of host communities. Tourism is vulnerable to economic crisis, both local economic shocks (Okumus & Karamustafa, 2005; Stylidis & Terzidou, 2014) and global economic crisis (Papatheodorou et al., 2010; Smeral, 2010). Significant attention has been paid to assessing the vulnerability of tourist destinations to acts of terrorism and the impacts of terrorist attacks on regional tourist economies (Liu & Pratt, 2017). The environmental impacts of tourism are significant, ranging from local effects to contributions to global environmental change (Gssling & Peeters, 2015). Sustainable tourism development has been promoted in various ways as a framing concept in contrast to these economic, environmental, and social impacts. Concerns about environmental issues appeared in tourism research just as global awareness of the environmental impacts of human activities was expanding. Future research on the role of tourism in sustainable development should focus on reducing the negative impacts of tourism development, both regionally and globally. Regions with stronger economic characteristics prior to natural disasters were found to have lower disaster losses than regions with weaker economies. Most studies conclude that tourism may have positive impacts for regional development and environmental conservation, but there is evidence that tourism inherently generates negative environmental impacts, primarily through pollutions stemming from transportation. This dependence itself is not sustainable (Wheeller, 2007), and thus the sustainability of tourism is questionable. Regional economic strength has been found to be associated with lower vulnerability to natural disasters. However, the relationship between tourism and the environment is multifaceted, as some types of tourism have been associated with negative environmental impacts, many of which are borne by host communities. The economic benefits and costs of tourism are frequently distributed unevenly. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm in 1972, the same year as the publication of The Limits to Growth (Meadows et al., 1972), which highlighted the concerns about the implications of exponential economic and population growth in a world of finite resources. Direct water consumption in tourism is estimated to be approximately 350 liters (L) per guest night for accommodation; when indirect water use from food, energy, and transport are considered, total water use in tourism is estimated to be approximately 6,575 L per guest night, or 27,800 L per person per trip (Gssling & Peeters, 2015). Second, the economic-driven tourism growth hypothesis emphasizes policies oriented toward well-defined and enforceable property rights, stable political institutions, and adequate investment in both physical and human capital to facilitate the development of the tourism sector. 1. Chase et al. A study of pro-poor tourism development initiatives in Laos identified a number of favorable conditions for pro-poor tourism development, including the fact that local people are open to tourism and motivated to participate (Suntikul et al., 2009). Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to localized shocks include disaster vulnerability in coastal Thailand (Calgaro & Lloyd, 2008), bushfires in northeast Victoria in Australia (Cioccio & Michael, 2007), forest fires in British Columbia, Canada (Hystad & Keller, 2008); and outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the United Kingdom (Miller & Ritchie, 2003). Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Tourism has played an increasingly important role in sustainable development since the 1990s, both globally and in particular countries and regions. Early research in sustainable tourism focused on the local environmental impacts of tourism, including energy use, water use, food consumption, and change in land use (Buckley, 2012; Butler, 1991; Gssling, 2002; Hunter & Green, 1995). Nevertheless, they have been studied extensively in the literature, which provides some context for how these benefits and costs are distributed. Some examples of mass tourism include beach resorts, cruise ship tourism, gaming casinos, golf resorts, group tours, ski resorts, theme parks, and wildlife safari tourism, among others. Reviews of tourism research have highlighted future research priorities for sustainable development, including the role of tourism in the designation and expansion of protected areas; improvement in environmental accounting techniques that quantify environmental impacts; and the effects of individual perceptions of responsibility in addressing climate change (Buckley, 2012). The notion of sustainable development is often associated with the publication of Our Common Future, the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, also known as the Brundtland Commission (WCED, 1987). The sustainability of tourism as an economic sector has been examined in terms of its vulnerability to civil conflict, economic shocks, natural disasters, and public health pandemics. The impacts of CBT on economic development and poverty reduction would be greatly enhanced if tourism initiatives were able to emphasize independence, address local community priorities, enhance community empowerment and transparency, discourage elitism, promote effective community leadership, and develop community capacity to operate their own enterprises more efficiently. The basic precepts of ecotourism had been discussed long before the actual use of the term. The travel and tourism sector is one of the largest components of the global economy, and global tourism has increased exponentially since the end of the Second World War (UNWTO, 2020). The regional benefits of tourism development must be considered alongside the global impacts of increased transportation and tourism participation. ensuring that communities are involved in and benefit from tourism; respecting local, natural, and cultural environments; involving the local community in planning and decision making; behaving in ways that are sensitive to the host culture; maintaining and encouraging natural, economic, and cultural diversity; and. Studies of the social impacts of tourism development have examined the perceptions of local residents and the effects of tourism on social cohesion, traditional lifestyles, and the erosion of cultural heritage, particularly among Indigenous peoples (Butler & Hinch, 2007; Deery et al., 2012; Mathieson & Wall, 1982; Sharpley, 2014; Whitford & Ruhanen, 2016). Caffyn (2012, p. 77) discusses the implementation of slow tourism in terms of encouraging visitors to make slower choices when planning and enjoying their holidays. It is not clear whether slow tourism is a marketing strategy, a mindset, or a social movement, but the literature on slow tourism nearly always equates the term with sustainable tourism (Caffyn, 2012; Conway & Timms, 2010; Oh et al., 2016). Some literature has acknowledged a vagueness of the concept of sustainable tourism, which has been used to advocate for fundamentally different strategies for tourism development that may exacerbate existing conflicts between conservation and development paradigms. Spenceley (2012) compiled case studies of community-based tourism in countries in southern Africa, including Botswana, Madagascar, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Tourism is extremely sensitive to oil spills, whatever their origin, and the volume of oil released need not be large to generate significant economic losses (Cirer-Costa, 2015). In this volume, authors characterize community-based and nature-based tourism development projects in the region and demonstrate how community participation in planning and decision making has generated benefits for local residents and supported conservation initiatives. From a global perspective, tourism contributes to (a) changes in land cover and land use; (b) energy use, (c) biotic exchange and extinction of wild species; (d) exchange and dispersion of diseases; and (e) changes in the perception and understanding of the environment (Gssling, 2002). Recognizing its value as an alternative marketing strategy, Conway and Timms (2010) make the case for rebranding alternative tourism in the Caribbean as a means of revitalizing the sector for the changing demands of tourists in the 21st century. Early definitions of sustainable tourism development seemed to fall in one of two categories (Sharpley, 2000). Community-based tourism has been examined for its potential to contribute to poverty reduction. Harnessing the economic benefits of tourism for pro-poor growth means capitalizing on the advantages while reducing negative impacts to people living in poverty (Ashley et al., 2001). By most measures, the global tourism system does not meet these criteria for sustainability. Foreign tourists demonstrated relatively stronger preferences for the inclusion of restrictions in the access to some trails. In turn, stable economic growth will provide the resources needed to develop the tourism infrastructure for the success of the countries tourism sector. Tourism has been associated with the principles of sustainable development because of its potential to support environmental protection and livelihoods. (2007) indicate, the focus on poor people in the South reflects a strong anthropocentric view . Kisswani et al. Tourism is a rapidly growing sector in Cuba, and it is projected to grow at rates that exceed the average projected growth rates for the Caribbean and the world overall (Salinas et al., 2018). Sustainable development is the foundational principle for enhancing human and economic development while maintaining the functional integrity of ecological and social systems that support regional economies. Given the global significance of the tourism sector and its environmental impacts, the role of tourism in sustainable development is an important topic of research in environmental science generally and in environmental economics and management specifically. Studies have concluded with support for both the tourism-led growth hypothesis (e.g., Durbarry, 2004; Katircioglu, 2010) and the economic-led growth hypothesis (e.g., Katircioglu, 2009; Oh, 2005), whereas other studies have found support for a bidirectional causality for tourism and economic growth (e.g., Apergis & Payne, 2012; Lee & Chang, 2008). Tourism is Fijis largest industry, with average annual growth of 1012%; and as a middle-income country, tourism is critical to Fijis economic development. As such, the role of tourism in sustainable development is highly questionable. Some research has emphasized how lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic can prepare global tourism for an economic transformation that is needed to mitigate the impacts of climate change (Brouder, 2020; Prideaux et al., 2020). (2013) investigated the relationship among oil price shocks, tourism variables, and economic indicators in four European Mediterranean countries and found that aggregate demand oil price shocks generated a lagged effect on tourism-generated income and economic growth. Harrison (2008) argues that pro-poor tourism is not a distinctive approach to tourism as a development tool and that it may be easier to discuss what pro-poor tourism is not than what it is. Tourism is a critical industry in many local and national economies, and it represents a large and growing share of world trade (Hunter, 1995). However, the relationship between tourism and the environment is complex, as some forms of tourism have been associated with negative environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater use, land use, and food consumption (Butler, 1991; Gssling & Peeters, 2015; Hunter & Green, 1995; Vitousek et al., 1997). and . One gigatonne (Gt) is equal to 1 billion (109) metric tons. Conway and Timms (2010) focus on the destination, advocating for slow tourism in terms of a promotional identity for an industry in need of rebranding. The results have policy implications for improving economic growth by harnessing the contribution of the tourism sector. Evidence suggests that the benefits of tourism expansion outweigh any export effects caused by an appreciation of the exchange rate and an increase in domestic prices and wages. Additional research has emphasized the impacts of environmental change on tourism itself, including the impacts of climate change on tourist behavior (Gssling et al., 2012; Richardson & Loomis, 2004; Scott et al., 2012; Viner, 2006). . Tourism is vulnerable to extreme weather events. Some literature has acknowledged a vagueness of the concept of sustainable tourism, which has been used to advocate for fundamentally different strategies for tourism development that may exacerbate existing conflicts between conservation and development paradigms (Garrod & Fyall, 1998; Hunter, 1995; Liu, 2003; McKercher, 1993b). However, residents who recognize negative impacts may not necessarily oppose tourism development (King et al., 1993). Butler (1991) suggests that there is a kind of mutual dependence between tourism and the environment that should generate mutual benefits. The cultural and natural heritage of developing countries is frequently based on such assets, and tourism represents an opportunity for income generation through the preservation of heritage values. Tourism has been promoted as a low-impact, non-extractive option for economic development, particularly for developing countries (Gssling, 2000), and many countries have managed to increase their participation in the global economy through development of international tourism. In integrating an ethical component to mass tourism development, Weaver (2014, p. 131) suggests that the desirable outcome is enlightened mass tourism. Such suggestions have been contested in the literature and criticized for dubious assumptions about emergent norms of sustainability and support for growth, which are widely seen as contradictory (Peeters, 2012; Wheeller, 2007). The findings document a long-run asymmetrical effect for most countries, after incorporating the structural breaks, suggesting that governments and tourism businesses and organizations should interpret oil price fluctuations cautiously. Similar criticisms have been leveled at the concept of sustainable development, which has been described as an oxymoron with a wide range of meanings (Adams, 2009; Daly, 1990) and defined in such a way as to be either morally repugnant or logically redundant (Beckerman, 1994, p. 192). The perceived nature of negative effects is complex and often conveys a dislike of crowding, traffic congestion, and higher prices for basic needs (Deery et al., 2012). The concept of sustainable tourism, as with the role of tourism in sustainable development, has been interpreted in different ways, and there is a lack of consensus concerning its meaning, objectives, and indicators (Sharpley, 2000). Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Environmental Science. When the number of tourists far exceeds that of the resident population, negative attitudes toward tourism may manifest (Diedrich & Garcia-Buades, 2008). The direct, indirect, and induced economic impact of global travel accounted for 8.9 trillion U.S. dollars in contribution to the global gross domestic product (GDP), or 10.3% of global GDP. Tourism is not resilient in that it does not easily recover from failures, such as natural disasters or civil unrest. Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to global shocks include the impacts of climate change, economic crisis, global public health pandemics, oil price shocks, and acts of terrorism. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Cater (1993) identified three key criteria for sustainable tourism: (a) meeting the needs of the host population in terms of improved living standards both in the short and long terms; (b) satisfying the demands of a growing number of tourists; and (c) safeguarding the natural environment in order to achieve both of the preceding aims. Advocates of slow tourism tend to emphasize slowness in terms of speed, mobility, and modes of transportation that generate less environmental pollution. Nevertheless, studies of the impacts of tourism development have documented negative environmental impacts locally in terms of land use, food and water consumption, and congestion, and globally in terms of the contribution of tourism to climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases related to transportation and other tourist activities.